DSS have been classified in different ways as the concept matured with time. As. and when the full potential and possibilities for the field emerged, different classification systems also emerged. Some of the well known classification models are given below:

• According to Donovan and Madnick (1977) DSS can be classified as,

1. Institutional-when the DSS supports ongoing and recurring decisions
2. Ad hoc-when the DSS supports a one off-kind of decision.

• Hackathorn and Keen (1981) classified DSS as,

1. Personal DSS

2. Group DSS

3. Organizational DSS

• Alter (1980) opined that decision support systems could be classified into seven types based on their generic nature of operations. He described the seven types as,

1. File drawer systems. This type of DSS primarily provides access to data stores/data related items.
2. Data analysis systems. This type of DSS supports the manipulation of data through the use of specific or generic computerized settings or tools.
3. Analysis information systems. This type of DSS provides access to sets of decision oriented databases and simple small models.
4. Accounting and financial models. This type of DSS can perform ‘what if analysis’ and calculate the outcomes of different decision paths.
5. Representational models. This type of DSS can also perform ‘what if analysis’ and calculate the outcomes of different decision paths, based on simulated models.
6. Optimization models. This kind of DSS provides solutions through the use of optimization models which have mathematical solutions.
7. Suggestion models. This kind of DSS works when the decision to be taken is based on well-structured tasks.

• Modern classification of DSS are,

1. Model Driven DSS is a DSS that uses a model (quantitative) based on heuristics, optimization, simulation etc. for deriving solutions to problems. It has access to the models and has flexibility of changing the parameters of the model. Real data or transactional data from databases of TPS is then passed through the model to arrive at the solution. The system is capable of producing different scenarios.
2. Data Driven DSS is a DSS that gives access to time-series internal data. Data ware houses that have tools that provide facility to manipulate such data are examples of advances systems. Executive Information Systems are examples of data-driven DSS.
3. Communications-driven DSS is a DSS that uses network and communications technologies to support decision-relevant collaboration and communication. In such systems, communication technologies are the most important component.
4. Document-driven DSS is a DSS that uses computer storage and processing to provide document retrieval and analysis.
5. Knowledge-driven DSS is a DSS that collects and stores ‘expertise’ so that it can be used for decision-making when required.

Components of DSS

Even though DSS can be of several types, fundamentally each DSS will have the following components:

• Interactive User-System Dialog Management Subsystem-DSS requires continuous user interaction. Sometimes the system should prompt the user to give an input at other time the user should be able to control the processing. A typical user system dialog management subsystem will have the following elements:

1. User Interface – the user interface of a DSS has to be dynamic and GUI based. It has to be an easy to use user interface as most of the people who will be using it are not technical experts but management experts (top management) and hence the interface should be minimalist in design. Also the system should be able to interact with the user in a interactive mode and hence the user interface has to be dynamic.
2. Request Constructor – since DSS works on an interactive dynamic mode, it needs a request constructor (incorporating aspects of Language Query Interface) which can convert the user’s instructors into model understandable form, the model’s data request to the database and the model’s instructions/requests to the user.

• Data Management Subsystem – data is the most important component of a DSS. Without the data a DSS cannot function. The data management subsystem manages the data for DSS. Data is accessed in a DSS in many ways like ad hoc basis, structured query basis and heuristic search basis and hence a strong data management subsystems is required to service the varied data requests from a DSS. The subsystem has the following elements:

1. Database Management System – it is the data store for the DSS. It manages the data and performs all the functions that a typical DBMS package does. In fact, in most DSS a commercial DBMS or RDBMS package is used to perform this task.
2. The Query Control – this is a tailored element to handle the query requirements of DSS. It may connect the database, directly to the user interface or to the model base or both.
3. Meta Data – this contains data about the data that is stored in the database. This helps the DSS in understanding the data in the database properly and helps in creating ad hoc queries.

• Model Management Subsystem – this is the unique feature of a DSS. This makes the system special. However, this also makes the system very specific. There are very few examples of a generalized DSS as generalized models are not available. Those that exist work on half baked solutions. The model management subsystem may use different classes of models like,

1. Optimization Models
2. Simulation Models
3. Heuristic Models
4. Deterministic Models
5. Predictive Models

Each class of model is useful to solve a specific class of problems like a routing problem or a scheduling problem or a combinatorial search problem etc. Model and Model Management has several connotations in DSS literature and there have been wide ranging definitions of these terms. The common strain that evolves from these plethora of definitions is that a model is conceived to consist of a solver, a model for solving a problem and data (Ramirez, 1993) where model represents relationships between variables, data represents the values of the variables under consideration and the solver is the tool that enables the computation of the variable values and their relationships. It has been also conceptualized in some literature as a procedure which works on the data to give an output after analysis.

The model management subsystem has the following elements:

1. The Model Base Management System-A model base or rather a model base management system is software is conceptually like what the DBMS is to data which has the capabilities to manage a model for it to be useful to the decision maker. It is the core of a DSS. It supports generation of models and works with data on one hand and the user supplied instructions on the other.
2. The Model Command Processor-is the entity that processes the commands coming from the dialog management subsystem.
3. The Model Executor or Solver- is the heart of the system. It is the process through which the model is solved using some algorithm. It works with the model as generated by the model base with instructions from the user, the request constructor (dialog management subsystem in general) to get the parameters of the model from the user and data from the data management subsystem. It then solves the problem and displays the results and some variations of the best fit solution through the dialog management subsystem. The alternative solutions as provided help the user in decision-making.

Tremendous amounts of content get created everyday in organization. Most organizations do not have a structured approach to managing such content. However, there is a need for having a scientific approach towards content and its management especially in the digital environment where content gets created and updated much faster. A content management is therefore required in organizations to support the organization and to keep track of the huge volume of content that gets created everyday.

Content management (CM) is the activity that supports the collection, management, and publication of information in any medium. Nowadays content management is usually done on IT platforms and hence it is considered as a separate set of technology that needs to be manag9d for the organization’s benefit. In IT driven companies the content is digital (in the form of alpha numeric text as in documents, multimedia content such as audio and/ or video, or any other type) which helps in its management.

Content management is an important activity that an organization needs to take seriously if it wants to leverage its information base. Content management is a collaborative process and consists of the following:

1. Content Creator – one who creates the content
2. Content Editor – one who edits the content and makes it palatable.
3. Content Publisher – content disseminator.
4. Content Administrator – manager of content access, version, etc.
5. Content user – content user.

A very import aspect of content management is version control. Digital content is easily changed and new versions are created of the same content. The content management system must ensure that the content that is available to the users is the current version of the content. Unless the version of the content is managed, the users may not be able to access the updated content. Content management must also be able to manage content distributions and digital rights management. Content management also eliminates duplication.

Drivers of Content Management

The three drivers that propel organizations for content management are:

1. Collaboration: In today’s working environment, the same content gets created and worked upon by several people simultaneously. This poses a challenge for organizations and the only solution to this is to adopt content management.
2. Compliance: Several compliance related issues have come up in the recent past that requires the single version of the truth from organizations, when they communicate to internal or external customers. This is again a challenge that can only be met by content management
3. Consolidation: This is the last driver for content management. Organization need more and more consolidated content that can only be done if content management is practiced.

Content Management System (CMS) is usually a software system with specific processes and procedures that allows us to manage digital content in a collaborative mode.

Types of CMS

1. Enterprise Content Management used to manage enterprise wide content.
2. Web content management systems used to manage web content.
3. Document management systems used for managing documents.
4. Mobile Content management system used to manage texts and multimedia content for mobile devices.

Organizations are structured in several ways. In some cases the functional roles and specializations form the basis of the segregation of groups into homogenous entities like departments, etc., while in other cases, logical business of the organization becomes the basis for segregation like divisions based on product categories, geographies (particularly related to markets) and also customer types? Organizational activities arranged in the form of a hierarchy can be based on the following types:

1. Functional structure is work based on specialization within the organization, such as finance, marketing, etc. This is a traditional way of structuring organizations based on specializations. Each group works like a sub-organization with policies and plans formulated at the top of the sub-organization after due inputs from the top management. Information normally flows vertically. Information management is comparatively easier in this kind of structure as roles are structured.
2. Product or service categories based structure, such as X product division, Y product division, etc. In this type of organization, managers in charge of a product or product category work not only vertically but also coordinate amongst each other and work horizontally.
3. Geography based structure, such as a structure based on segregation/grouping on geographical areas like North region or X province, Z zone, etc. This type of structure is suitable where markets are segmented in geographical areas.
4. Customer category based structure, such as grouping people according to high paying customers, low paying customers, etc. This kind of structure is especially suitable for service industries, banks, financial and brokerage companies, etc.
5. Matrix structure is a mix of different structures suitable for tackling important changes in the environment. Such structures are complex arid information flows in all directions. It is challenging for managers to manage such a structure. Information management in these structures is difficult as the decision-making process within the organization is sometimes non-linear.
6. Virtual organizations are the organizations which exist only in cyberspace and draw all their resources from cyberspace.

Different information management techniques are required for the various organization structures given above. The role of the information manager is also different in each case. Let us now understand the relation between management and information.

Organizations and management are concepts that are very important for the understanding of MIS. Organization is the crucible in which MIS operates and management is the reason for its existence. Any understanding of MIS is incomplete without a discussion on organization and management. Organization and its structure play an important role in MIS as different levels of employees have different levels of authority.

Organization is not a monolithic entity and is structured in a formal manner. This structure is called the organization structure and management follows the organization structure. The decision-making capability is different at different levels. Information and information systems can deliver valuable information only if the theory of information systems and information management is coupled with the organization and management theory. The roles played by different levels of management also need to be understood to provide an information systems based solutions1. The major tasks of management are planning, controlling, organizing, staffing and leading.

These activities of management are carried out at different levels. Typically, management is divided into three distinct levels. These levels are-strategic level or top management that looks after the strategic interests of the organization, tactical level that looks after the smooth functioning of the organization at the tactical level and the operational level that looks at the operational issues. These levels of management have different degrees of authority and responsibility. It is important to understand the functions of each level so that a proper MIS design could be done to supply each level of management² with the right kind of information.

What Is An Organization?

We are prone to use the term organization rather loosely. In the context of information, management organization means an entity (not necessarily only business entity) with a team of people working towards a common goal or objective. Resources are obviously used to attain the objective. A business organization is a special type of organization where the goal or objective of the organization is the attainment of a business outcome like increased profits, increased shareholder value, increased market share, etc. Moreover, business organizations have a way of attaining these objectives and are arranged in a distinct structure segregated into levels of hierarchy. Decision-makers at each level of hierarchy are called managers and the common way of working and management of a business organization is referred to as business management.

Organization Forms

Organizations have been conceptualized as having different forms3 like that of a machine, an organism, a coercive system and culture. Morgan (1986) has been the pioneer in identifying organizations using metaphors such as machines, brains, organisms, political systems, cultures, psychic prisons, coercive instruments of subjugation and as change and transformation. Each metaphor gives a different form and view to the organization. This is a simplistic way of viewing a complex system of an organization.

Forces at Work

Several forces are always at play within an organization. The goal of the management is to align all the forces to work together for the fulfillment of the broad objective of the organization. (Minztberg 1991) suggested that organizations are subjected to the forces of:

1. Direction is the strategic pathway set by management.
2. Innovation is the force to adapt to changes in the environment and come up with new products and services.
3. Proficiency is the visible skill base and knowledge of the people who make the organization.
4. Concentration is a force that is to be used to focus the energies of the people of the organization on a particular aspect, like developing core competencies and markets.
5. Cooperation is the team work with which the objectives are achieved in the organization
6. Competition is the conflict within the organization. This also propels people to perform better.
7. Efficiency is the force of continuously looking at processes to reduce costs and translate the resources into a better value for everyone.

Several formal definitions of organization have been popular over the years. A suitable way of formally defining an organization (Clancy 1989) is that it regularly performs three important tasks. It produces products and services, it makes a profit in the process and continues to grow and survive as an organization. An alternative definition (Galbraith 1977), (Gerloff 1985) suggests, that an organization is a set of people with the purpose of achieving some common shared objectives through the division of labor, planning, bonded by systems and structures and information-based logical decision-making throughout times.